Who is Jesus the Christ?
A Study of Early Gnostic and Orthodox Christianity
An Adult Sunday School Class by Tim Bryan and Bill Stroop
CLASS
5, April 4, 2004:
Jesus' Last Day: Gethsemane and The Crucifixion
The book, Jesus the Last Day contains a series of essays on the final hours of the life of Jesus of Nazareth.[1] In today's class we will focus on two aspects of that day, the hours spent in Gethsemane and Jesus' crucifixion.
For many people, the scene described in the New Testament of Jesus' prayer experience in Gethsemane on the night he was arrested is a vivid account of personal struggle. Let's first look at the Gospel accounts of that night, all reprinted from the NRSV translation. Note that included in the readings below are the descriptions of the time alone with the disciples as well as the chaos of Jesus' arrest.
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Mark 14:32-52
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Matthew 26:36-56
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Luke 22:39-53
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John 18:1-11
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Jesus Prays in Gethsemane 32 They went to a place called Gethsemane; and he said to his disciples, “Sit here while I pray.” 33 He took with him Peter and James and John, and began to be distressed and agitated. 34 And he said to them, “I am deeply grieved, even to death; remain here, and keep awake.” 35 And going a little farther, he threw himself on the ground and prayed that, if it were possible, the hour might pass from him. 36 He said, “Abba, Father, for you all things are possible; remove this cup from me; yet, not what I want, but what you want.” 37 He came and found them sleeping; and he said to Peter, “Simon, are you asleep? Could you not keep awake one hour? 38 Keep awake and pray that you may not come into the time of trial; the spirit indeed is willing, but the flesh is weak.” 39 And again he went away and prayed, saying the same words. 40 And once more he came and found them sleeping, for their eyes were very heavy; and they did not know what to say to him. 41 He came a third time and said to them, “Are you still sleeping and taking your rest? Enough! The hour has come; the Son of Man is betrayed into the hands of sinners. 42 Get up, let us be going. See, my betrayer is at hand.” The Betrayal and Arrest of Jesus 43 Immediately, while he was still speaking, Judas,
one of the twelve, arrived; and with him there was a crowd with swords
and clubs, from the chief priests, the scribes, and the elders. 44 Now
the betrayer had given them a sign, saying, “The one I will kiss
is the man; arrest him and lead him away under guard.” 45 So when
he came, he went up to him at once and said, “Rabbi!” and kissed
him. 46 Then they laid hands on him and arrested him. 47 But one of those
who stood near drew his sword and struck the slave of the high priest,
cutting off his ear. 48 Then Jesus said to them, “Have you come out
with swords and clubs to arrest me as though I were a bandit? 49 Day after
day I was with you in the temple teaching, and you did not arrest me.
But let the scriptures be fulfilled.” 50 All of them deserted him
and fled. |
Jesus Prays in Gethsemane 36 Then Jesus went with them to a place called Gethsemane; and he said to his disciples, “Sit here while I go over there and pray.” 37 He took with him Peter and the two sons of Zebedee, and began to be grieved and agitated. 38 Then he said to them, “I am deeply grieved, even to death; remain here, and stay awake with me.” 39 And going a little farther, he threw himself on the ground and prayed, “My Father, if it is possible, let this cup pass from me; yet not what I want but what you want.” 40 Then he came to the disciples and found them sleeping; and he said to Peter, “So, could you not stay awake with me one hour? 41 Stay awake and pray that you may not come into the time of trial; the spirit indeed is willing, but the flesh is weak.” 42 Again he went away for the second time and prayed, “My Father, if this cannot pass unless I drink it, your will be done.” 43 Again he came and found them sleeping, for their eyes were heavy. 44 So leaving them again, he went away and prayed for the third time, saying the same words. 45 Then he came to the disciples and said to them, “Are you still sleeping and taking your rest? See, the hour is at hand, and the Son of Man is betrayed into the hands of sinners. 46 Get up, let us be going. See, my betrayer is at hand.” The Betrayal and Arrest of Jesus 47 While he was still speaking, Judas, one of the twelve, arrived; with him was a large crowd with swords and clubs, from the chief priests and the elders of the people. 48 Now the betrayer had given them a sign, saying, “The one I will kiss is the man; arrest him.” 49 At once he came up to Jesus and said, “Greetings, Rabbi!” and kissed him. 50 Jesus said to him, “Friend, do what you are here to do.” Then they came and laid hands on Jesus and arrested him. 51 Suddenly, one of those with Jesus put his hand on his sword, drew it, and struck the slave of the high priest, cutting off his ear. 52 Then Jesus said to him, “Put your sword back into its place; for all who take the sword will perish by the sword. 53 Do you think that I cannot appeal to my Father, and he will at once send me more than twelve legions of angels? 54 But how then would the scriptures be fulfilled, which say it must happen in this way?” 55 At that hour Jesus said to the crowds, “Have you come out with swords and clubs to arrest me as though I were a bandit? Day after day I sat in the temple teaching, and you did not arrest me. 56 But all this has taken place, so that the scriptures of the prophets may be fulfilled.” Then all the disciples deserted him and fled. |
Jesus Prays on the Mount of Olives
39 He came out and went, as was his custom, to the Mount of Olives; and the disciples followed him. 40 When he reached the place, he said to them, “Pray that you may not come into the time of trial.” 41 Then he withdrew from them about a stone’s throw, knelt down, and prayed, 42 “Father, if you are willing, remove this cup from me; yet, not my will but yours be done.” [[ 43 Then an angel from heaven appeared to him and gave him strength. 44 In his anguish he prayed more earnestly, and his sweat became like great drops of blood falling down on the ground.]] 45 When he got up from prayer, he came to the disciples and found them sleeping because of grief, 46 and he said to them, “Why are you sleeping? Get up and pray that you may not come into the time of trial.” The Betrayal and Arrest of Jesus 47 While he was still speaking, suddenly a crowd came, and the one called Judas, one of the twelve, was leading them. He approached Jesus to kiss him; 48 but Jesus said to him, “Judas, is it with a kiss that you are betraying the Son of Man?” 49 When those who were around him saw what was coming, they asked, “Lord, should we strike with the sword?” 50 Then one of them struck the slave of the high priest and cut off his right ear. 51 But Jesus said, “No more of this!” And he touched his ear and healed him. 52 Then Jesus said to the chief priests, the officers of the temple police, and the elders who had come for him, “Have you come out with swords and clubs as if I were a bandit? 53 When I was with you day after day in the temple, you did not lay hands on me. But this is your hour, and the power of darkness!” |
The Betrayal and Arrest of Jesus
1 After Jesus had spoken these words, he went out with his disciples across the Kidron valley to a place where there was a garden, which he and his disciples entered. 2 Now Judas, who betrayed him, also knew the place, because Jesus often met there with his disciples. 3 So Judas brought a detachment of soldiers together with police from the chief priests and the Pharisees, and they came there with lanterns and torches and weapons. 4 Then Jesus, knowing all that was to happen to him, came forward and asked them, “Whom are you looking for?” 5 They answered, “Jesus of Nazareth.” Jesus replied, “I am he.” Judas, who betrayed him, was standing with them. 6 When Jesus said to them, “I am he,” they stepped back and fell to the ground. 7 Again he asked them, “Whom are you looking for?” And they said, “Jesus of Nazareth.” 8 Jesus answered, “I told you that I am he. So if you are looking for me, let these men go.” 9 This was to fulfill the word that he had spoken, “I did not lose a single one of those whom you gave me.” 10 Then Simon Peter, who had a sword, drew it, struck the high priest’s slave, and cut off his right ear. The slave’s name was Malchus. 11 Jesus said to Peter, “Put your sword back into its sheath. Am I not to drink the cup that the Father has given me?”
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In her article entitled, "Where was Gethsemane?" Joan Taylor provides a 'tour guide' view of the areas of the Kidron valley where Jesus was likely to have gone to pray on the night he was arrested.[2] Mark's description of the night tells of jesus and his disciples going to the Mount of Olives. Luke and Matthew, who likely had Mark as a written source of material when they wrote their accounts, followed Mark's description, adding as needed to make their particular theological points. Matthew mentioned a place (but not a garden) named Gethsemane. All three of the synpotics mention the Mount of Olives. A place called Gesthamane is mentioned, but it is not referred to as a garden by any of the writers of the synpotics. John, however, calls the area where Jesus and the disciples went a "garden" but John does not call it "Gethsemane." Thus the idea of the "Garden of Gethsemane" is a conflation of the Gospels.
Taylor believes that Gesthamane was a cave, and not a garden, located across the Kidron Valley. The word, "Gethsemane" comes from the Aramaic word (Gatshemanin) meaning "oil press;" the Hebrew word was "Gat-Shemanim." Oil presses were often housed in caves or pits, and in the area where Jesus and his disciples would have gone that night, was a cave, currently known as the Cave of Gethsemane. Conflating the Gospel accounts, Taylor imagines that Jesus and his followers crossed over the Kidron Valley, probbaly heading back to Bethany, and went a little way up the Mount of Olives to the cave. They probably used the cave often as a resting place. Inside they probably lit lamps and prepared to sleep. Jesus stayed awake while the rest of them slept. In time, Judas came with a group of Roman and Priestly authorities, and greeted Jesusa t the mouth of the cave. The disciples awoke, scuffled with the authorities, and some of them ran away (or were told by Jesus to flee). One man (see Mark) lost his clothes and fled naked. The others were allowed to leave, because the authorities only wanted Jesus.
Taylor mentions several lines of evidence to support the cave as the last night Jesus enjoyed freedom. The nun Egeria visited the Holy Land in 382 C.E. and reported that pilgrims on Good Friday went "into Gethsemane." In the sixth century, Theodosius describes Gethsemane as a large cave. Taylor believes the association with a garden occurred in the 12th century and later, drivien by European art that depicted Jesus' last night in the garden.
What about the great drops of sweaty blood Jesus lost while in prayer (see the Lukan account, above)? We cannot know with certainty what transpired, and that is probably not the point anyway. But, as C. Truman Davis points out in his article entitled, "The Crucifixion of Christ, " (available on-line), it is interesting that the physician of the group, St. Luke, is the only one to mention this. He says, "And being in agony, He prayed the longer. And His sweat became as drops of blood, trickling down upon the ground." Davis continues,
"Every attempt imaginable has been used by modern scholars to explain away this phrase, apparently under the mistaken impression that this just doesn't happen. A great deal of effort could be saved by consulting the medical literature. Though very rare, the phenomenon of hematidrosis, or bloody sweat, is well documented. Under great emotional strain, tiny capillaries in the sweat glands can break, thus mixing blood with sweat. This process alone could have produced marked weakness and possible shock."
Medical Aspects of Crucifixion
The crucifixion is, for some, the focal point of salvation. In Paul's Letter to the Philippian's, he quotes what is likely to have been a hymn circulating in the Church's of Paul's time. This hymn points toward Christ's sacrifical outpouring of himself (kenosis), obedient even unto death, as the supreme act of self-denial. It reads as follows:
2:1 If then there is any encouragement in Christ, any consolation
from love, any sharing in the Spirit, any compassion and sympathy, 2 make my
joy complete: be of the same mind, having the same love, being in full accord
and of one mind. 3 Do nothing from selfish ambition or conceit, but in humility
regard others as better than yourselves. 4 Let each of you look not to your
own interests, but to the interests of others.5 Let the
same mind be in you that was in Christ Jesus,
6 who, though he was in the form of God,
did not regard equality with God
as something to be exploited,
7 but emptied himself,
taking the form of a slave,
being born in human likeness.
And being found in human form,
8 he humbled himself
and became obedient to the point of death—
even death on a cross.
9 Therefore God also highly exalted him
and gave him the name
that is above every name,
10 so that at the name of Jesus
every knee should bend,
in heaven and on earth and under the earth,
11 and every tongue should confess
that Jesus Christ is Lord,
to the glory of God the Father.
The Gospel accounts of Jesus' crucifixion, and the principle events preceding Jesus' death, do not fully agree with each other, as illustrated by the following quotations taken from the NRSV translation of the New Testament:
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Mark 15
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Matthew 27
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Luke 22:63-65, 23:13-49
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John 18:38b-19:37
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| The Soldiers Mock Jesus
16 Then the soldiers led him into the courtyard of the palace (that is, the governor’s headquarters ); and they called together the whole cohort. 17 And they clothed him in a purple cloak; and after twisting some thorns into a crown, they put it on him. 18 And they began saluting him, “Hail, King of the Jews!” 19 They struck his head with a reed, spat upon him, and knelt down in homage to him. 20 After mocking him, they stripped him of the purple cloak and put his own clothes on him. Then they led him out to crucify him. The Crucifixion of Jesus 21 They compelled a passer-by, who was coming in from
the country, to carry his cross; it was Simon of Cyrene, the father of
Alexander and Rufus. 22 Then they brought Jesus to the place called Golgotha
(which means the place of a skull). 23 And they offered him wine mixed
with myrrh; but he did not take it. 24 And they crucified him, and divided
his clothes among them, casting lots to decide what each should take.
The Death of Jesus 33 When it was noon, darkness came over the whole land
until three in the afternoon. 34 At three o’clock Jesus cried
out with a loud voice, “Eloi, Eloi, lema sabachthani?” which
means, “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?” 35
When some of the bystanders heard it, they said, “Listen, he is calling
for Elijah.” 36 And someone ran, filled a sponge with sour wine,
put it on a stick, and gave it to him to drink, saying, “Wait, let
us see whether Elijah will come to take him down.” 37 Then Jesus
gave a loud cry and breathed his last. 38 And the curtain of the temple
was torn in two, from top to bottom. 39 Now when the centurion, who stood
facing him, saw that in this way he breathed his last, he said,
“Truly this man was God’s Son!” |
The Soldiers Mock Jesus
27 Then the soldiers of the governor took Jesus into the governor’s headquarters, and they gathered the whole cohort around him. 28 They stripped him and put a scarlet robe on him, 29 and after twisting some thorns into a crown, they put it on his head. They put a reed in his right hand and knelt before him and mocked him, saying, “Hail, King of the Jews!” 30 They spat on him, and took the reed and struck him on the head. 31 After mocking him, they stripped him of the robe and put his own clothes on him. Then they led him away to crucify him. The Crucifixion of Jesus 32 As they went out, they came upon a man from Cyrene
named Simon; they compelled this man to carry his cross. 33 And when they
came to a place called Golgotha (which means Place of a Skull), 34 they
offered him wine to drink, mixed with gall; but when he tasted it, he
would not drink it. 35 And when they had crucified him, they divided his
clothes among themselves by casting lots; 36 then they sat down
there and kept watch over him. 37 Over his head they put the charge against
him, which read, “This is Jesus, the King of the Jews.” The Death of Jesus 45 From noon on, darkness came over the whole land
until three in the afternoon. 46 And about three o’clock Jesus
cried with a loud voice, “Eli, Eli, lema sabachthani?” that
is, “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?” 47 When some
of the bystanders heard it, they said, “This man is calling for Elijah.”
48 At once one of them ran and got a sponge, filled it with sour wine,
put it on a stick, and gave it to him to drink. 49 But the others said,
“Wait, let us see whether Elijah will come to save him.” 50 Then Jesus cried again with a loud voice and breathed his last. 51 At that moment the curtain of the temple was torn in two, from top
to bottom. The earth shook, and the rocks were split. 52 The tombs also
were opened, and many bodies of the saints who had fallen asleep were
raised. 53 After his resurrection they came out of the tombs and entered
the holy city and appeared to many. 54 Now when the centurion and those
with him, who were keeping watch over Jesus, saw the earthquake and what
took place, they were terrified and said, “Truly this man was God’s
Son!” |
The Mocking and Beating of Jesus
22:63 Now the men who were holding Jesus began to mock him and beat him; 64 they also blindfolded him and kept asking him, “Prophesy! Who is it that struck you?” 65 They kept heaping many other insults on him. Jesus Sentenced to Death 23:13 Pilate then called together the chief priests,
the leaders, and the people, 14 and said to them, “You brought me
this man as one who was perverting the people; and here I have examined
him in your presence and have not found this man guilty of any of your
charges against him. 15 Neither has Herod, for he sent him back to us.
Indeed, he has done nothing to deserve death. 16 I will therefore have
him flogged and release him.” The Crucifixion of Jesus 26 As they led him away, they seized a man, Simon of
Cyrene, who was coming from the country, and they laid the cross on him,
and made him carry it behind Jesus. 27 A great number of the people followed
him, and among them were women who were beating their breasts and wailing
for him. 28 But Jesus turned to them and said, “Daughters of Jerusalem,
do not weep for me, but weep for yourselves and for your children. 29
For the days are surely coming when they will say, ‘Blessed are the
barren, and the wombs that never bore, and the breasts that never nursed.’
30 Then they will begin to say to the mountains, ‘Fall on us’;
and to the hills, ‘Cover us.’ 31 For if they do this when the
wood is green, what will happen when it is dry?” The Death of Jesus 44 It was now about noon, and darkness came over the whole land until three in the afternoon, 45 while the sun’s light failed; and the curtain of the temple was torn in two. 46 Then Jesus, crying with a loud voice, said, “Father, into your hands I commend my spirit.” Having said this, he breathed his last. 47 When the centurion saw what had taken place, he praised God and said, “Certainly this man was innocent.” 48 And when all the crowds who had gathered there for this spectacle saw what had taken place, they returned home, beating their breasts. 49 But all his acquaintances, including the women who had followed him from Galilee, stood at a distance, watching these things.
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Jesus Sentenced to Death
18:38b After he had said this, he went out to the Jews again and told them, “I find no case against him. 39 But you have a custom that I release someone for you at the Passover. Do you want me to release for you the King of the Jews?” 40 They shouted in reply, “Not this man, but Barabbas!” Now Barabbas was a bandit. 19:1 Then Pilate took Jesus and had him flogged. 2
And the soldiers wove a crown of thorns and put it on his head, and they
dressed him in a purple robe. 3 They kept coming up to him, saying, “Hail,
King of the Jews!” and striking him on the face. 4 Pilate went out
again and said to them, “Look, I am bringing him out to you to let
you know that I find no case against him.” 5 So Jesus came out, wearing
the crown of thorns and the purple robe. Pilate said to them, “Here
is the man!” 6 When the chief priests and the police saw him, they
shouted, “Crucify him! Crucify him!” Pilate said to them, “Take
him yourselves and crucify him; I find no case against him.” 7 The
Jews answered him, “We have a law, and according to that law he ought
to die because he has claimed to be the Son of God.” The Crucifixion of Jesus So they took Jesus; 17 and carrying the cross by himself,
he went out to what is called The Place of the Skull, which in Hebrew
is called Golgotha. 18 There they crucified him, and with him two
others, one on either side, with Jesus between them. 19 Pilate also had
an inscription written and put on the cross. It read, “Jesus of Nazareth,
the King of the Jews.” 20 Many of the Jews read this inscription,
because the place where Jesus was crucified was near the city; and it
was written in Hebrew, in Latin, and in Greek. 21 Then the chief
priests of the Jews said to Pilate, “Do not write, ‘The King
of the Jews,’ but, ‘This man said, I am King of the Jews.’
” 22 Pilate answered, “What I have written I have written.”
23 When the soldiers had crucified Jesus, they took his clothes and divided
them into four parts, one for each soldier. They also took his tunic;
now the tunic was seamless, woven in one piece from the top. 24 So they
said to one another, “Let us not tear it, but cast lots for it to
see who will get it.” This was to fulfill what the scripture says,
Jesus’ Side Is Pierced 31 Since it was the day of Preparation, the Jews did not want the bodies left on the cross during the sabbath, especially because that sabbath was a day of great solemnity. So they asked Pilate to have the legs of the crucified men broken and the bodies removed. 32 Then the soldiers came and broke the legs of the first and of the other who had been crucified with him. 33 But when they came to Jesus and saw that he was already dead, they did not break his legs. 34 Instead, one of the soldiers pierced his side with a spear, and at once blood and water came out. 35 (He who saw this has testified so that you also may believe. His testimony is true, and he knows that he tells the truth.) 36 These things occurred so that the scripture might be fulfilled, “None of his bones shall be broken.” 37 And again another passage of scripture says, “They will look on the one whom they have pierced.”
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All Gospel accounts describe Jesus' death by crucifixion, a kind of death considered by most to be the most horrible form of torture ever practiced. We will now examine the medical aspects of crucifixion. Detailed information about crucifixion is available on line and in written form. References and links are provided immediately below this section. Arguably the best source on the medical aspects of crucifixion is the 1986 article by Edwards, Wesley, and Hosmer entitled “On the Physical Death of Jesus Christ,” published in the Journal of American Medical Association (full citation is in the bibliographic references below). Below is a summary of the execution as adapted from the work of C. Truman Davis (1965), Edwards, Wesley, and Hosmer (1986), and Harrub & Thompson (2002).
In the early morning, Jesus, battered and bruised, dehydrated, and exhausted from a sleepless night, is taken across Jerusalem to the Praetorium of the Fortress Antonia, the seat of government of the Procurator of Judea, Pontius Pilate. In response to the cries of the mob, that Pilate condemned Jesus to scourging and crucifixion. There is much disagreement among authors about whether the scourging was a prelude to crucifixion or was intended as the final punishment (see Lk 23:16).
Scourging. According to tradition, a prisoner was stripped of clothing and his hands tied to a post above his head. The Jews had an ancient law prohibiting more than forty lashes. The Pharisees, always making sure that the law was strictly kept, insisted that only thirty-nine lashes be given. (In case of a miscount, they were sure of remaining within the law.) The practice of scourging was a legal preliminary to every Roman execution because it weakened the victim through shock and blood loss. Without scourging, strong, condemned men might live on the cross for several days until exposure, wild animals, insects, or birds resulted in their death. The only allowable exemptions to this law were women and Roman senators or soldiers.
To accomplish scourging, the Roman legionnaire stepped forward with the flagrum (or flagellum) in his hand. This is a short whip consisting of several heavy, leather thongs with two small balls of lead attached near the ends of each. The heavy whip was brought down with full force again and again across Jesus’ shoulders, back and legs. At first the heavy thongs cut through the skin only, but eventually. subcutaneous tissues were exposed, producing first an oozing of blood from the capillaries and veins of the skin, and finally more serious bleeding from deeper vessels in the underlying muscles. The skin of the back was exposed in long ribbons and the entire area was an unrecognizable mass of torn, bleeding tissue. When it was determined by the centurion in charge that the prisoner was near death, the beating is finally stopped.
Mockery. Jesus was untied and allowed to drop to the ground. The Roman soldiers see a great joke in this provincial Jew claiming to be a King. They threw a robe across his shoulders and placed a stick in his hands for a scepter. A crown to make their travesty complete was fashioned from branches covered with long thorns which was pressed into his scalp. Botanists familiar with foliage of the Middle East have suggested that the thorns could have come from the lote tree—the Zizyphus spina christi. This tree had thorns averaging one inch in length. It was improbable for anyone to form a wreath-like crown using these thorns without being injured. It would be more probable, therefore, that the crown of thorns was more like a helmet. The scalp becasue it is one of the most vascular areas of the body,would bleed profusely. We imagine that when the Romans tire of mocking Jesus, the robe is torn from his back. The clots of blood and serum in the wounds would be pulled off, causing excruciating pain, and renewing blood loss.
The Walk of the Condemned. Archaeological evidence strongly suggests that criminals during the time of Christ were not forced to carry an entire T-shaped cross as is commonly portrayed, but rather only the crossbeam (known as a patibulum), which would have weighed between 75 and 125 pounds. The heavy patibulum of the cross was tied across his shoulders, and Jesus, perhaps along with the two thieves were accompanied by the execution detail of Roman soldiers, headed by a centurion, walked to the place of execution. The traditional walk is along the Via Dolorosa. The weight of the heavy wooden beam, together with the shock produced by copious blood loss, caused Jesus to stumble and falls. The leader, the centurion, probably selected Simon of Cyrene, a North African, to carry the patibulum. Jesus followed, and completed the 650 yard journey from the fortress Antonia to Golgotha Jesus was stripped except his loin cloth which was allowed Jewish prisoners.
The Crucifixion. Jesus would probably have been offered wine mixed with myrrh, a mild analgesic mixture. Simon would have placed the patibulum on the ground and Jesus was thrown backward with his shoulders against the wood. The legionnaire would have felt for the depression at the front of the wrist. The location of the spike on the wrist was precise. Care was taken to not pierce the median nerve or peripheral branches of the nerve, because that would have caused a condition known as causalgia, which was to be avoided. But, the placement of the spike was to injure this nerve. The reason was because the median nerve is a major nerve that passes directly through the midline of the wrist and services all but one-and-one-half of the muscles in the anterior portion of the forearm. It passes directly under the flexor retinaculum of the wrist as it supplies motor innervation to the three thenar (thumb) muscles and the first and second lumbrical muscles. This large nerve also provides sensory innervation to the palm, as well as to digits two and three in the hand. Any damage to this nerve would have caused extraordinary pain to radiate up the arm, then through the axilla, to the spinal cord, and finally to the brain. Also, proper placement of the spike was necessary to miss the primary arteries that travel on the medial and lateral aspects of the wrist. Having nailed one wrist to the patibulum, the soldier would have moved to the other side and repeated the action, being careful not to pull the arms too tightly. Flexion and movement of the victim was necessary to maximize the torture. The patibulum would have then been lifted up, and the titulus reading, "Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews" nailed in place above Jesus' head.
There were many ways to nail the feet to the stipes (vertical piece), but most required the knees to be flexed and rotated laterally. It is likely that the spikes were driven through either the: (1) tarsometatarsal joint (between the metatarsal bones and cuneiform bones); or (2) the transverse tarsal joint (between the calcaneus and cuboid or navicular bones). While this placement undoubtedly would prevent the bones of Christ’s feet from breaking, it nevertheless would cause severe injury to the deep peroneal nerve or lateral plantar nerve (and artery), and certainly would pierce the quadratus plantae muscle.
As Jesus slowly sagged down with more weight on the nails in the wrists, excruciating, fiery pain would shoot along the fingers and up the arms to explode in the brain, becasue the Romans knew exactly where to place the nail to put maximum pressure on tthe median nerves. As Jesus pushed himself upward to avoid the stretching torment, he would have placed his full weight on the nail through His feet. As his arms fatigued, great waves of cramps swept over the muscles, knotting them in deep relentless, throbbing pain. With these cramps came the inability to push himself upward. Hanging by his arms, the pectoral muscles in his chest would be come essentially paralyzed and the intercostal muscles between his ribs would be unable to move.
Even though blood poured from his lacerated back, one major pathophysiological impairment Jesus faced during crucifixion was normal respiration. Maximum inhalation would have been possible only when the body weight was supported by the nailed wrists of the outstretched arms. When Christ first was lifted onto the splinter-covered surface of the cross, His arms and body were stretched out in the form of a “Y.” A momentary “T” position would be required to allow proper support for inhalation. Thus, in order to breathe He was required to lift His body using His nailed wrists for leverage. Exhalation would be impossible in this position, and the immense pain placed on the wrists quickly would become too great; therefore, Christ would have to slump back into a “Y” position to exhale. Jesus would be forced to continue alternating between the “Y” and “T” positions with every breath, trying all the while not to reopen the wounds He had received from the scourging. Fatigued muscles eventually would begin to spasm, and Christ would become exhausted from these repeated tasks, slumping permanently into the shape of a “Y.” In this position, chest and respiratory muscles soon would become paralyzed from the increased strain and pain. Without strength for breath, Christ’s body would begin to suffer from asphyxia.
Eventually, the loss of tissues fluid would reach a critical level—his heart would struggling to pump heavy, thick sluggish blood into the tissues. His rib cage muscles would be barely able to gasp in small gulps of air. With one last surge of strength, Jesus finally pressed his torn feet against the nail, straightened his legs, took a deeper breath, and uttered his seventh and last cry, "Father, into thy hands I commit my spirit."
On-Line Articles (click on the blue button to go to that article)
| C. Truman Davis. "The Crucifixion of Christ" Arizona Medicine 22(3):183-187, 1965. | |
| Brad Harrub and Bert Thompson. "An Examination of the Medical Evidence for the Physical Death of Christ" Reason and Revelation 22(1):1-7, 2002 |
Bibliographic References
Ball, D.A. (1989), “The Crucifixion and Death of a Man Called Jesus,” Journal of Mississippi State Medical Association, 30(3):77-83, March.
Barbet, P. (1953), A Doctor at Calvary: The Passion of Our Lord Jesus Christ as Described by a Surgeon (Garden City, NY: Doubleday Image Books).
Bloomquist, E.R. (1964), “A Doctor Looks at Crucifixion,” Christian Herald, pp. 35,46-48.
Bucklin, R. (1970), “The Legal and Medical Aspects of the Trial and Death of Christ,” Medical Science and the Law, 10:14-26.
Cooper, H.C. (1883), “The Agony of Death by Crucifixion,” New York Journal of Medicine, 38:150-153.
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Edwards, William D., Wesley J. Gabel, and Floyd E. Hosmer (1986), “On the Physical Death of Jesus Christ,” Journal of American Medical Association, 256:1455-1463.
Haas, N. (1970), “Anthropological Observations on the Skeletal Remains From Giv’at ha-Mivtar,” Israel Exploration Journal, 20:38-59.
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Johnson, C.D. (1978), “Medical and Cardiological Aspects of the Passion and Crucifixion of Jesus, the Christ,” Boletin—Asociacion Medica de Puerto Rico, 70:97-102.
Lumpkin, R. (1978), “The Physical Suffering of Christ,” Journal of Medical Association of Alabama, 47:8-10.
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[1] Molly Dewsnap Meinhardt. Jesus: The Last Day. Washington, D.C.: The Biblical Archeological Society, 2003.
[2] Taylor, Joan E."Where was Gethsemane?" Jesus: The Last Day. (Washington, D.C.: The Biblical Archeological Society, 2003), 23-38.