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CLASS 5:

Introduction

We will discuss Christianity in England, beginning with a brief look at how Christianity got to England, Scotland, and Wales, and the distinctive shape that Christianity took in those places. We will discuss the theology of the English reformation and the development of the prayer book. We will discuss the 16th and 17th centuries because these are the two centuries in which the church that gave birth to the Anglican perspective, and the via media. We will follow discussion of the English reformation with the history and development of the prayer book, tracing their development and the evolution of the Episcopal Book of Common Prayer used today in the United States.

A Brief History of the Church in England before the Reformation

We should begin at the outset by acknowledging that much of what we know (or believe to be true) about the earliest days of Christianity in the British Isles comes to us from the Englishman St. Bede the Venerable. Bede was a scholar, an historian, and a Biblical exegete. He was born about 673 and died about 735 C.E. He became a priest and wrote many works over his lifetime. Today, Bede is knows as the Father of English History (Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church). His major historical work is the Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum (Completed in 731 C.E.). Bede was made a doctor of the Church by Pope Leo XIII in 1899.

It is not known when Christianity came to England, but it certainly came to England during the Roman occupation. The first mention of Christianity in England is by Tertullian (see Class 3) referring to Christians in Britain; this would have been about 200 C.E. One theory is that when persecutions broke out against the Christians in Gaul (France), Christians traveled northward, and across the channel.

During the third century C.E., the nascent church in England grew. Books were written, and churches and schools were built. By 314 C.E., there were several bishops in England. Three of these bishops (Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelphius of Colchester) attended a council meeting ar Arles, indicating that by the mid fourth century, church administration was already fairly well established in England. No British bishop attended the Council at Nicea in 325, but Athanasius (the chief defender of Orthodoxy against Arius at Nicea), expressly wrote that the British Church accepted the decisions of the Council of Nicea (Moorman, 4).

Alban was the first recorded Christian convert in England. Alban befriended a priest who was fleeing persecution during the reign of Diocletian (see the Great Persecution in Class 3). When soldiers came to arrest the priest, Alban dressed in the priest's cloak, and was taken by the soldiers, condemned, and martyred on the hill where St. Alban's Abbey Church now stands.

The Edit of Milan (see Class 3) in 312 made Christianity legal in the Roman Empire. It is assumed that the Edict paved the way for increase church membership in England, but Bede doesn't record much about that. What is known is that the native British church was very poor.

St. Patrick

St. Patrick was an Englishman who lived near the sea. He was the son of Colpornius, a deacon of the church. When Patrick was about 15 or 17 years of age, his community was attacked by Irish pirates, and Patrick was captured and sold into slavery as a swineherd to the hose of Niall of the Nine Hostages. After 6 years, he escaped, and apparently spent some time in Gaul (France) perhaps at the University of Paris and/or in a monastery of St. Martin of Tours. In 432 he returned to England, and was consecrated as a bishop for work in Ireland. He served in this capacity for 30 years. Patrick's see was at Armagh, the only place where diocesan administration seemed to work; the rest of England where Patrick attempted to establish ecclesiastical polity resulted in failure. The monastery system under Patrick was unlike that in Europe. The English monastery was little more than an "ecclesiastical tribe" (Moorman, 8).

English Versus Irish Christianity

The invasion of England by the Angles and the Saxons caused a set back of Christianity in England of about 150 years, with the exception of Wales. During this period, Christianity advanced in Ireland, which was largely untouched by these invasions. Bede wrote that in the majority of England, there was no attempt to convert the Saxons; the majority of early Christian conversion took place in Ireland.

Map of England, Ireland, and Scotland, ca. 1767

Saint Columba and the Irish Influence on Northumbria

Columba (died, 597 C.E.) was the son of Phelim of the royal house of Niall of the Nine Hostages. In 563, Columba and some companions left Ireland and sailed northward to Iona, a small Island off the west coast of Scotland. As Christians, the first thing they did was build a monastery. There, they farmed, fished, copied manuscripts, and the other tasks characteristic of a Celtic monastery. Soon Iona became a center of missionary work to the Scottish mainland, and the islands of the Hebrides. Columba spent 30 years as a missionary leader in Iona.

St. Augustine of Canterbury and the Roman Influence

Pope Gregory the Great selected Augustine in 596 to become the first papal missionary to England. He ran into serious trouble in Gaul, and returned to Rome. But Gregory would have none of that kind of failure, and sent Augustine to England a second time. He arrived in Kent in 597 C.E. The then King of England, Ethelbert had a Christian wife named Bertha, who herself was the daughter of a Frankish king. Probably because of Bertha's Christianity, it was easy for Augustine to press Christian conversion. Moorman also believes that the Teutonic heathenism had run its course, and that also contributed to the growing popularity of Christianity. In 597 when Augustine was consecrated bishop of Canterbury, it is said that Augustine baptized 10,000 converts. Gregory fully supported Augustine's efforts. Gregory divided England into two provinces each with an archbishop, and 12 suffragan bishops. Augustine was named Archbishop of Canterbury (York is the other province). Augustine sent missionaries to central England. Augustine held the position of archbishop for 7 years until his death in 604.

Other Roman Missionaries to England

Paulinus, an Italian monk, came to England in 621. Twenty four years later, he was consecrated Bishop and was sent to Northumbria. Like Augustine, he found Edwin, King of Northumbria, to be engaged to a Christian woman, Ethelburga. This proved to be as effective for Paulinus as it was for Augustine, and in 627 Edwin was baptized on Easter Eve.

Roman versus Ionian (Celtic-Irish) Influences

During the sixth and seventh centuries C.E., the Ionian (Celtic) and the Roman influences clashed. The principle problem was the date for the celebration of Easter in the year 663 C.E. The Roman calendar suggested one date for Easter, which was in the middle of Lent for the Celtic churches. This was a particularly severe problem because the King of Northumbria, Oswy, was of the Celtic persuasion, and his wife, was a Roman. This conflict was resolved at the Synod of Whitby under the Abbess, Hilda. Not surprisingly, the King adopted the Roman calendar. His reason was that he would rather be on good terms with the Keeper of the Keys of Heaven (St. Peter) than with St. Columba (Moorman, 21).

In 609, Theodore of Tarsus, Archbishop of Canterbury, united England under the Roman calendar and the Roman tradition. Bede claims that Theodore was the first bishop who united England. Theodore was a monk originally from Asia Minor. England was united under a set of canons (church laws). By the beginning of the 8th century C.E., then church in England was becoming an organized and powerful entity. But, by the end of the 8th century, the church and England herself faced a new threat: invasion by Vikings.

The Viking Invasions and the Battle of Hastings

Beginning at the very end of the ninth century C.E., England began to endure a century of invasions by Viking invaders. One by one the English kingdoms succumbed, until only Wessex remained. In 878, England was split between Denmark and what remained of England under Alfred the Great. Alfred is credited as being the savior of England. Moorman writes, "The saviour of England and of the Church in England in those dark days was King Alfred who, 'alone among the rulers of his time, realised the vital importance of the spiritual issue and devoted no less energy to the recovery of the tradition of Christian culture than to the defense of national existence'." (Moorman, 41). Indeed, he is often claimed to be the greatest ruler in Europe since Charlemagne.

In 1065 the King, Edward the Confessor, who had built Westminster Abby, died, having promised the throne of England to his kinsman, William, Duke of Normandy. William, with the backing of Pope Alexander II, invaded England and defeated Harold at the Battle of Hastings in 1066. Harold was a leader of several powerful Earls who opposed the idea of foreign (i.e., Norman) influence on English affairs.

The Middle Ages Under the Normans: The Beginning of King vs. Pope

William the Conqueror of Normandy considered himself a church reformer. The popes, particularly Alexander II and Gregory VII thought William would increase Papal influence in the English Church. But that was not the case. From the very beginning of his reign, William regarded himself as the "head of the church in England" (Moorman, 39). William set about replacing the English bishops with Norman ones. The net effect of this "reform" was to completely submerge the Anglo-Saxon culture during the last 30 years of the 11th century C.E. Even the English language disappeared for 300 years.

William died in 1087. In 1093, Anselm reluctantly became the Archbishop of Canterbury; he was appointed by William's son, William Rufus. Anselm, who had lived and worked in Italy during the years of Papal reform (See Class 4), was a papal supporter, and he wanted to curtail the power of the King in England. Eventually, by his death in 1109, Anselm had broken the independence of the English Kings over the Pope. But the battle between church and state would continue through the reign of Henry II and beyond.

At the time Henry II came to power in England, there was a law that said that men of the cloth could only be tried in ecclesiastical courts. Henry wanted one law for all people. Thomas Becket, Henry's friend and Archbishop of Canterbury eventually came to oppose Henry's position. Eventually Becket was murdered because of his overarching belief that the things that are God's should not be rendered unto Caesar. Becket's eventual assassination at the hand of the King's men resulted in the triumph of Church over State. Indeed, Becket's tomb at Canterbury became the most celebrated shrine in Europe for over 30 years. It was Henry VIII who had Thomas' bones scattered in 1538 in order to end this triumph.

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The Sixteenth Century English Reformation

Between the 12th and 13th centuries, England, like the Holy Roman Empire, experienced the rise in monasticism, the increase in papal power, and the decline of the papacy including the "Babylonian Captivity," that we discussed in the last class (see class 4). By the beginning of the 14th C, England had a weak government, heavy papal taxation, was in the middle of the Hundred Years War with France, and to make matters worse, the Black Death came to England. Finally, the 14th C would end in civil war.

By the mid 14th century, the government took up the question of whether the taxes collected by Rome were being used for policies that were favorable to the interests of the English people. Parliament passed five acts based on the assumption that " the power of the papacy in England [had] increased ... and ought to be diminished" (Moorman, 116). These acts were all of a general feeling of nationalism that was being felt in England, just as it was being felt in Europe by the Spanish, the Portuguese, the French, and the Germanys. There was widespread discontent over "worldly and venal bishops; idle, absentee clergy; rich, sporting monks; hypocritical and grasping friars" (Moorman, 116).

John Wyclif and the English Bible

Into this civil and ecclesiastical unrest, John Wyclif was born in 1328. He was a parish priest, but more importantly, a principal scholar at Oxford. He was a cynic and a bitter man. But he was also very aware that the common person in England was completely ignorant of what scripture said. He therefore conceived of the idea of translating the Bible into English, which was accomplished during the last years of his life. Wyclif died of a stroke in 1384.

The Hundred Years War and the Close of the Middle Ages

The Hundred Years War with France (1337-1453) was an expensive and wasteful expenditure of English resources. And in the end, the French throne remained in the hands of the French. In 1399, a revolution was fought that brought Henry Tudor to the throne. This was called the War of the Roses and it is what gave rise to the Tudor dynasty. Under Henry, England experienced a kind of unity it had not experienced for many years. Humanism was growing, and the merchant class was increasing in numbers and in power. Since about 1100 C.E. there had been a growing uneasiness about papal power, and the period of the Avignon popes (the "Babylonian Captivity") put the papacy and England in direct conflict. This situation reached its zenith at the beginning of the sixteenth century with the reign of Henry VIII.

The heritage of the Renaissance was such that the initial curiosity about the eastern empire, scholasticism, and the rediscovery of Aristotle and Neoplatonism eventually gave rise to a kind of cynicism. Humanism was on the rise, and with it came a growing sense of skepticism. Erasmus wrote In Praise of Folly in which he expressed a critical view of scripture. Machiavelli wrote The Prince in 1532 in which he stated that education as best expressed in service of the state. The multiplicity of popes during the Babylonian Captivity and the Counciliar movement eroded the standing and authority of the pope and the standing of clergy in general.

Henry VIII and the Church of England

The presence of Protestantism in Europe and England in 1529 (From Chadwick, 138)

Henry VIII (1491-1547) came to power with the death of his father Henry VII in 1509. He was the ideal Renaissance prince: young, debonair, clever, and handsome. He was also a gifted scholar. In other words, he had all the gifts at just the right time in history, and he had a king-sized ego.

Not too unlike the controversy between Henry II and Becket, Henry VIII saw the power struggle between himself and the pope as an issue of who is the ultimate authority. Eventually Henry will claim that the State, and not the Pope is the unifying authority in people's lives.

In 1521, when Martin Luther was very actively speaking out against the abuses of the church in Germany and Protestantism was spreading (see the map to the right), Henry VIII wrote against Luther - particularly Luther's views on the sacraments. As a result he was granted the title of "Defender of the Faith" by pope Leo X (this title is still carried by the English monarch).

Early in his reign, Henry found an ally and a powerful collaborator in Thomas Wolsey. He loaded him with preferment, and the pope made him a cardinal. He was liked by the king, and feared by the English Bishops. He did whatever Henry needed done. He suppressed the monasteries to build schools and colleges.

In the 1520's when Luther's works were being widely read and discussed, a group of men including Robert Barnes, Thomas Bilney, John Frith, Thomas Cranmer, Matthew Parker, Hugh Latimer, and Nicholas Ridley thoroughly discussed Luther's work. The problem was that Henry saw that these men were discussing more than religious reform. He eventually saw some of these men as political enemies and traitors. Bilney, Frith, and Barnes were executed for treason. William Tyndale, a printer, printed an English version of the Bible in Worms between 1525 and 1526. This was considered treason, and after hiding on the Continent for a while, Tyndale was eventually captured and strangled and burned near Brussels in 1536.

More serious than treason was the fact that Henry's marriage to Katherine of Aragon had not produced a surviving male heir (they had three sons and two daughters, but only one - Mary) had survived. Henry wanted an heir, and he had fallen in love with Ann Boleyn. Katherine had been married to Henry's brother, and was allowed to marry Henry only through a special dispensation granted by Pope Julius II. Henry reasoned that the pope had no business granting the initial dispensation, and therefore the pope had to grant that his marriage to Katherine was null. Henry instructed Wolsey to make application to Rome for a divorce. After a two year period, Henry was furious (the delay was intentional, because the then pope, Cement VII could not afford to upset Charles V who was Katherine's aunt). Wolsey was targeted as a failure, and he was indicted under the statute of Praemunire (taking orders from a foreign power, in this case, the pope). Wolsey was replaced by Thomas Cranmer, a sympathizer to the reformation.

Henry VIII (from Gonzales, 71).

John Jewel

While Henry was arguing for the separation of the Church in England on political grounds, a noted theologian was arguing for separation on theological grounds. John Jewel (1522-1571) was the Sp. of Salisbury. He was invited by Thomas Cranmer to teach at Cambridge, and was himself a teacher of Richard Hooker. In the mid 1500's, John Jewel wrote an Apology explaining the English position. This apology was directed to the Pope. He claimed that the reason the English church strayed from the Roman church was because the Roman church strayed from the faith. He stated that the Ecclesia Anglicana was fully catholic.

Henry Becomes Supreme Head of Church by Acts of Parliament

By 1531, Henry was desperate. He insisted that all clergy swear allegiance to him as "Supreme Head of the English Church and clergy." The clergy finally agreed to acknowledge Henry as the "Singular Protector, only supreme Lord, and as far as the law of Christ allows, even Supreme Head of the Church in England." The crown had now become part of the official constitution of the English Church. Henry finally had passed seven bills passed through parliament which would forever sever all ties with Rome. These can be read in the book by Bettenson (see the Bibliography).

1. The Conditional Restraint of Annates. This stopped the practice of giving to Rome all of the earnings of a see during its first year. Form now on, only 5% would go to Rome.
2. The Act in Restraint of Appeals. No longer would ecclesiastical appeals go to Rome, but they would remain within the "realm of England as an Empire." This is the first time the independent sovereignty of England is asserted, and that the king is head of both church and state.
3. The Submission of the Clergy and the Restrain of Appeals. This re-enacted the Act in Restraint, above.
4. The Ecclesiastical Appointments Act. This provided the mechanism for appointment of a Bishop. In this document, no longer is the Pope referred to as the "Pope" but as the "Bishop of Rome."
5. The Dispensations Act. the power for granting dispensations and licenses was transferred from the pope to the Archbishop of Canterbury.
6. The Supreme Head Act. The king was not head of the church and state, and had the power to define doctrine and to punish heresy.
7. The Succession Act. Gave parliamentary sanction to the divorce and made it possible for the king to demand an oath of loyalty. It was under this act that Thomas More was sentenced.

In 1536, Oliver Cromwell, acting under Henry's orders, began a systematic process of closing the monasteries in England and claiming all monastic lands for the crown. In time, many of these lands were leased, others were sold. For Henry, the key element was that monies that had been formerly sent to Rome, were now going to stay in England. Some of the monies were also used to provide pensions for ex-monks and ex-nuns.

Just before Henry's death, he issued the Six Articles Act which abolished any diversity of opinions. This act made heresy a felony. The six articles were

1. The doctrine of transubstantiation
2. The adequacy of communion in one kind only
3. The necessity of clerical celibacy
4. The obligation of the laity to observe chastity
5. The importance of private masses
6. The necessity of sacramental confession

To the reformers, this was a serious blow. Hugh Latimer resigned his see as did other Bishops, and Cranmer's wife left England for Germany (remember he was a priest who married). Any clergy who disagreed with the Act was burnt.

Another important element of the reformation in England was the production of an English Bible. The first of these was issued by Cromwell and Cranmer in 1539. This put the Holy Bible in the vernacular tongue into the hands of the people. This will be discussed in greater depth below.

It is very important to note that it was not Henry who made the Church of England the Church in England. It was Parliament that accomplished that. The separation of the Church of England from Rome was an act of state, not the act of Henry VIII. But Henry had declared that he, and he alone, as the supreme head of the Church of England, hand the power to make doctrine.

The Brief Reign of Edward VI

Protestantism in Europe and England in 1555. Note the very small pockets of Anglicanism. (from Chadwick, 139)

In January, 1547 Henry died. Edward VI was nine years at the time. Because of his the power of the king was left in the hands of Protector Somerset, a friend of Cranmer's. The Act of Six Articles and the heresy laws were ignored and then repealed in November of that year. This effectively allowed the Protestant movement freedom of expression in the mid sixteenth century. It was during this period that the first Prayer book assembled by Thomas Cranmer, was published (development of the prayer book is discussed in detail below). Eventually Parliament decreed that communion should be administered in both kinds, and that clergy could marry. Of importance was the passing of the 1549 Act of Uniformity which abolished the Latin mass and made a new English language liturgy the legal form of worship. This in essence gave the Cranmer's Book of Common Prayer legal standing.

Liturgical reform during this period was severe. The "Catholicity" of the mass was removed by men who later became known as the Edwardian Robbers. They stripped churches of things that seemed idolatrous; altars were replaced with tables.

During the reign of Edward (from 1547 to 1553), many of the reformers from the Continent came to England either to escape or to teach and preach. It is from this period that the influence of Calvin and Zwingili (see Class 4) came to be felt in the Church of England. While the Duke of Northumberland was the protector of Edward, great progress in Protestantism took place in England. Simplified liturgies in English were introduced, a Swiss doctrine of the Eucharist was introduced, and the Forty Two Articles of Religion were introduced defining the English Church view of the principles of the European reformation. These would be modified and reduced to the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion under Elizabeth, and which are still in the Episcopal Prayer Book, Historical Documents today. Together with the Book of Common Prayer, the Articles defined the doctrinal standards of the English Church.

To the people of England, most of these changes were transparent. Although the mass was in English in many places, most preferred the old Latin masses.

 

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The Sixteenth Century Reign of Bloody Mary

Mary Tudor (from Gonzales, 77)

In 1553, Mary came to the throne. The daughter of Henry VIII and Katherine of Aragon, Mary was a fanatical Roman Catholic. Treated as a pariah during the reign of Edward VI, she came to the throne at the age of 37 determined to restore the Roman Catholic faith to England. She married Prince Philip of Spain. Five Catholic bishops who had been removed from their sees were restored, and Ridley, Cranmer, and Latimer (among others) were imprisoned. About 2000 clergy were deposed because they had married. All legislation passed under Edward was abolished, including the Act of Uniformity, and the right of clergy to marry. Mary re-established a few monastic houses.

When she was crowned she promised to maintain the rights of the Holy See in England, and Mary wished the papal legate, Reginald Pole to become the new Archbishop of Canterbury. Her wishes were eventually granted when the Pope (Julius III) promised that former church lands currently under control of other leading landowners, would remain in the hands of those landowners. Parliament received absolution for having being disobedient to the pope and for the schismatic acts of the Kingdom of England.

Mary died childless, leaving the Kingdom to her half-sister, Princess Elizabeth, the daughter of Anne Boleyn and Henry VIII. Mary died on 17 November 1558; curiously, Cardinal Pole died a few hours after Mary passed away.

The Burnings Under Queen Mary

In 1554, old statutes against heresy were re-established, and in 1555, John Rogers, the first of several English martyrs, was burned. Over the next three and one half years, nearly 300 people were burned as heretics (Chadwick, 125). Bishops Ridley and Latimer and Archbishop Cranmer were among those who died. For those interested in this sad and bizarre period of English history, click here to view a pdf file of a paper by Bill Stroop on the English Martyrs. The English Reformation was baptized in the blood of these martyrs. An unfortunate consequence o this was that the average Englishperson associated ecclesiastical tyranny with the See of Rome. The Protestant cause began to be identified with virtue, honesty, and loyal English resistance to a foreign potentate.

The burning of Archbishop Thomas Cranmer

The Burning of Bps. Hugh Latimer and Nicholas Ridley

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The Seventeenth Century English Church and the Via Media

Protestantism in Europe and England in 1600. Note the Anglican influence in England and Ireland (from Chadwick, 140).

By the beginning of the sixteenth century and the reign of Elizabeth I, Protestantism had spread throughout Europe and British Isles (see map to the right).

Elizabeth is arguably the most influential and powerful ruler of England. He was crowned in 1558 and lived until 1603. She was an exceedingly complex person. During the reign of Mary Tudor, Elizabeth lived on the continent, and when Mary died, Elizabeth was brought back to England by the Protestants who labeled her their champion. She was a skilled diplomat (although Chadwick describes her as one who would tell anyone exactly what they wanted to hear), but very undiplomatically withdrew the English envoy from Rome. She severed relations with the Pope. Not to be out done, the pope issued the Regnus in excelsis excommunicating Elizabeth in 1570.

In addition to religious issues, and the fact that the nation was two-thirds Roman Catholic, Elizabeth faced serious domestic and foreign problems. The treasury was impoverished, the French laid claim to the English throne through Mary Queen of Scots, there was a Spanish army in the Netherlands, and England was virtually undefended. Note that the Council of Trent met during the reign of Elizabeth. Thus Elizabeth was ruling at the time of the Counter-Reformation (See Class 4).

In terms of religious reform, she was a Protestant, but was also the daughter of Henry VIII, and hence she was anxious to restore religion like her father had left it. But she ruled a religiously divided country. The reign of Mary left the Catholics more Roman and the Protestants more reformed. Some wanted the Pope, and others wanted the Prayer Book for which Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer had died. (Chadwick, 131).

Religion and politics merged in Elizabeth. She needed the help of Spain against the French, even though she had openly stated that she could not marry Philip II of Spain because she was a protestant heretic. In order to obtain Spain's help, she could not become too Protestant. She needed a compromise solution, and she needed the power to enforce her will.

In 1563 a Convocation of the Church re-examined the 42 articles that had been written in 1553 and which represented a statement of the Church of England's view about the doctrines that were circulating in Europe during the European reformation. These were presented to Elizabeth, and with some revision, 39 of them became official policy of the English government.

Parliament eventually passed the Supremacy Bill giving Elizabeth the title of Supreme Headship. She took the power but changed the title to Supreme Governor. The Prayer book of 1552 (see below) was reissued under an Act of Uniformity, making it the legal form of worship once again.

The Theology of Richard Hooker and the Elizabethan Settlement

At about the time Elizabeth came to the throne, Hooker, a priest in England, was writing against the Puritans and the Anabaptists. Hooker was a student of Jewel. In 1600 he wrote the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity in which he argued that it was necessary that the monarch be the head of the church. Richard Hooker is especially important, because is legacy is what lies at the heart of the worldwide Anglican Communion. It was Hooker who pointed toward a middle way, the via media and the Elizabethan Settlement.

Hooker was an Aristotelian, and as such, he believed in natural law. He viewed the Puritan perspective as unnatural. He was also fearful of individualism. He developed the concept of the three-legged stool: Scripture, Reason, and Tradition being the three legs that support the church. He argued that scripture itself presupposes that the reader is a reasonable inheritor of tradition. Under the leadership of scripture, therefore, reasonable people will come to the same conclusion.

Hooker's theological view paved the way for a compromise position between the forces of Roman Catholicism and the forces of the more radical reformers.

"In the eyes of those who were shaping the destiny of the church in England there was no sense of separation from the rest of the catholic church. The Church in England was, as the title page of the first Prayer Book had implied, a part of the catholic church even though it had repudiated papal jurisdiction. It was catholic, but it was also reformed. Its roots ran back to the primitive church, but certain customs and ideas which had clung to it during the middle ages had now been cut away. The fundamental doctrines and constitution of the Church remained the same, but a number of genuine reforms had been carried out, such as the vernacular liturgy, the administration of the Sacrament in both kinds and permission for the clergy to marry ... The Elizabethan Settlement, the middle way between reformed Protestantism and Roman Catholicism reversed the policies of Mary Tudor, but actually didn't introduce much that was new. Elizabeth's policy was to keep the Church of England free from foreign influence, whether from Rome or Geneva, and to allow it to develop on its own lines, in accordance with the growing patriotism and national pride of which the queen herself so soon became the symbol" (Moorman, 212). See also the section on Hooker in Class 6.

James and the Bible

Elizabeth died in 1603 and James VI of Scotland (the great-great Grandson of Henry VIII, a Stuart, and the son of Mary Queen of Scots) was invited to become King of England and unite the crowns of England and Scotland. James became known as James I of England, and was the king who based his claim to supremacy on the theological view of the Divine Right of Kings. Some did not agree, and plotted against James and Parliament; they planned to blow up the King and both houses of Parliament. The plotters were discovered and executed, and James imposed an Oath of Allegiance; this strengthened the Divine Right concept. The reformers, particularly the Puritans had hoped for much from James; they demanded from James the abolition of making of the sign of the cross during baptism, bowing at the name of Jesus, and the reading of the Apocrypha in Church. James called a conference at Hampton Court in 1605.

During the Elizabethan age, the government of England had authorized a Bible for reading in the churches. The first was the Great Bible issued by Cromwell and Cranmer in 1539, and then the Bishops Bible of 1568. But the most popular Bible was the Geneva Bible, which was not authorized by the English government. This was published by the Protestant English exiles during the reign of Mary Tudor. This Bible was a revision of the Great Bible, and was influenced by Calvin. During the Hampton Court Conference, James authorized a new version of the Bible to be produced (The Authorized King James) and made a few revisions to the prayer book.

Charles I, and the Civil War

James' son, Charles I was a severe proponent of the Divine Right of Kings doctrine, and declared that "I owe the account of my actions to God alone." Basically the King could do no wrong. Compare this to the same claims of authority made by the popes that we discussed in Class 4. In 1629, the King dissolved Parliament and governed by royal prerogative. The country rebelled against James' royal despotism. In 1642 Charles went to battle with Parliament at Nottingham. Oliver Cromwell was the leader of the Parliamentary forces. The Parliamentarians won, and in 1644 the Solemn League and Covenant became law which meant the legal end of the Church of England. Parliament was very Presbyterian in its outlook and intolerant of everything else. Eventually Cromwell had the King executed on January 30, 1649. The death of Charles outraged the average Englishperson, and his death made the restoration of the monarchy inevitable. When the renegades cut of Charles head, they cut their own throats.

The Caroline Divines

During the reign of Charles, there was a group of men who adhered to the via media approach championed by Hooker. These were Bishop Laud, Lancelot Andrewes, Richard Montague, John Cosin, Thomas Fuller, Jeremy Taylor, George Herbert, and Nicholas Ferrar. These men worked separately, but were pious, scholarly, and dedicated to the church. The stood firmly between the papal and puritan beliefs. They sought not the lowest common denominator, but a position where the simplicity and purity of primitive Christianity could be achieved.

Cromwell, the Inter Regnum, and Charles II

The death of Charles I marked the triumph of the Puritan influence. The hope was that the tyranny of the King was at an end, and the Reign of God could begin. Cromwell became the Protector of the Commonwealth, and this began the Inter Regnum which lasted from 1645 to 1660. There were many liturgical changes - including replacement of the 1552 prayer book with the Westminster Directory of Worship. Cromwell's son became protector when his father died in 1658, but he was a failure. The army was able to oust the old Parliament, called for the election of a new Parliament, and invited the King to return. Charles II, who had been living in Holland, arrived in England to face a country divided over religion. The Anglicans, who had been largely underground during the Protectorate were anxious to see the restoration of the Church of England. The Episcopacy was restored including reintroduction of the 1552 prayer book, but the Puritans resisted the return of the Prayer book. Many of them fled England and came to North America. Those who stayed formed the first English Presbyterian churches and Congregationalist Churches (Crockett, 181).

In 1661 the Clarendon Code was enacted by Parliament. This was actually a string of legislation designed to abolish non-conformity in the church and to restore uniformity. It was this act that required all persons holding civic office in England had to renounce the Solemn League and Covenant, they had to be members of the Church of England. In 1662, the Prayer Book was restored for use by an Act of Uniformity. This is the prayer book in use today in the Church of England. In terms of nomenclature, those people (Roman Catholics for instance) who did not conform to the provisions of the Code were termed "non-conformists."

It should be noted that the time of Charles II was also the dawning of the golden age of reason and the Enlightenment. Locke, Hobbs, and Rousseau will write their important works during this time.

James II and William and Mary

Charles died in 1685, and his brother James II, a devout Roman Catholic became king. He slowly began to make it possible for Roman Catholics to hold positions of prestige and power in universities and in government. The situation came to a head when James suspended all penal laws against non-conformists. in the Act of Toleration of 1689. Anglican Bishops protested, fearing that the papacy would once again regain power in England. The Bishops were sent to the Tower for trial. The mood in England at the time was very much Anti-Jamesian, and the Bishops became folk heroes.

James had a daughter by his first wife. This girl was named Mary, and by this time she was married to William of Orange, a Dutchman who was a staunch Calvinist. They were strict Protestants. The Anti-Jamesian forces in England made overtures to William and Mary to return to England and take the crown. On November 5, 1688, William invaded England, and James fled London, dropping the great seal of the nation into the Thames.

The Non-Jurors

The crowning of William and Mary proved problematic. Since James had not abdicated, he was considered by some to be the rightful king. That meant that those who were loyal to James, could not swear allegiance to William and Mary. These people became known as the non-Jurors, and they included four hundred clergy and six bishops. Many of the non-jurors left England for Scotland.

The Act of Toleration

Finally, in 1689, Parliament passed the Act of Toleration, which allowed a certain degree of freedom of religious expression in England. People could meet and worship, but had to meet with the knowledge of the Anglican Bishop, and with the doors of the church unlocked. Roman Catholics, Unitarians and Jews, however, were still not tolerated. But, for the first time, the idea of a nation that prays together was developing.

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The Development of the Prayer Book

Above, Thomas Cranmer. Below, The Title Page to the 1549 Book of Common Prayer

Cranmer and the 1559 BCP

The development of the Book of Common Prayer (aka, Prayer Book, BCP) is closely tied to the historical event sof the 16th C. The very first BCP was assembled by Thomas Cranmer (painting at right). Thomas was interested in achieveing several inter-related goals. One major goal was to increase the participation by the congregation. By Cranmer's time, Holy Eucharist in the Roman Church was more of a spectator activity than a participatory one. Seocnd, because of his interest in learning, he wanted the congregation to have a deeper personal understanding of the liturgy.

Liturgy in the 16th C reflected the history of England. As noted above, English history reflected a desire on the part of the king for uniformity. The prayer book is part of that trajectory. Up to now there were several ordinals and other books in use by the clergy (such as the breviary and the missal), and the mass was not uniform. The BCP was one way to correct that.

Cranmer's idea was to make one book that would be commonly used by all churches in worship and administration of the sacraments. The development of the BCP thus reflects the political and devotional uniformity that the 16th C and the king were attempting to impose on all English subjects.

The 16th C was a time of growing nationalism all over Europe, and nations were in the process of individuation (self-indentification). Cranmer was persuaded that the public liturgy (that is the public prayers said in church) should reflect the realm. Hence the BCP becomes important in the definition of the nation - or at least reflects the historical and theological views which give rise to a sense of nationhood.

Shown at the right is the title page of the 1559 prayer book developed by Cranmer, and which was the first BCP in the world. Cranmer borrowed heavily from the Bible, from Lutheran theology, and from german sources in constructing the Eucharistic prayer. It is important to note that here is no elevation of the host following the words of consecration in the first BCP.

The Edwardian Prayer Book of 1552

The next revision of the prayer book came after Edward VI became king of England. There were several changes instituted including the rubrics (rules) about wearing proper vestments and a cope, how the offertory was to be conducted, Specific prayers were introduced as well including prayers for church, king, clergy, the sick, and the dead. Cranmer was an Erastian (supported the idea that the monarch was God's representative), which undoubtedly effected his choice of texts and sensibilities.

Some parts of the Eucharistic prayers were moved from the 1549 prayer book. The 1552 BCP was not as popular as the 1549 book. It was definitely more nationalistic and more Protestant. The words of he Eucharistic prayer are more of a remembrance of Christ's death rather than an acknowledgement of the real presence of Christ. This was made explicit in the 1552 BCP by the insertion of the "Black Rubric" (inserted by royal decree) denying the real presence of Christ in the eucharist. For Cranmer, the eucharistic focus was on the sacrificed of Christ "once offered." This probably reflects the influence of Zwingli, Calvin, and other more radical Continental reformers.

The 1552 BCP is the book that becomes the official Book of the English Church. If you wish, you may click here to obtain a printable pdf file of the principle features and histories of the 1549, 1552 and 1662 English Prayer Books.

The Title Page to the 1662 Book of Common Prayer

The 1559 and the 1662 BCP

The seventeenth century was a tumultuous time. Notably in terms of development of the BCP, the Puritan movement began to increase. By 1640, the Puritans had gained numerical superiority in Parliament. After Charles I and Bishop Laud (the ecclesiastical spokesperson for the Anglican Church) were beheaded, Puritan reform went into full swing. The 1552 BCP was replaced by the Westminster Directory of Worship. But, when the monarchy was restored in 1661, the BCP returned.

The 1559 BCP was the product of the Elizabethan Settlement, but the Black Rubric was removed. But when the prayer book was made the official book of worship by an act of Parliament in 1662, the black rubric was restored, and the doctrine of transubstantiation was completely excluded. That act is still in effect, and in English (Anglican) churches, the prayer book in use today is the same as it was in 1662. A copy of the title page of the 1662 BCP is shown to the right.

The 1637 Scottish Prayer Book

The Scottish Prayer Book is important to our discussion, because the American Prayer Book is taken from the Scottish Book, and not the English Book as one might expect. That is because of the War for Independence fought by the colonists against England. England being a national church could not, and would not, consecrate Bishops for the new nation of the United States. This is because the of the Oath of Loyalty to the monarch required by the English Church. In order to obtain Bishops in Apostolic succession, the first Bishop, Seabury, went to Scotland to be consecrated. Consequently he brought back with him the liturgical tradition of the Scots which formed be basis of the American Book of Common Prayer. This tradition included the 1637 Scottish Prayer Book and the Wee Bookies of the early-mid 18th C.

The Scottish prayer book evolved from the English prayer book of 1549. It was introduced into Scotland by Archbishop Laud. Laud was consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury in 1633 during the reign of Charles I. As noted above both men were proponents of the divine right of kings. Laud desired that the Scots be brought into compliance under the English king, and introduced the prayer book to Scotland in order to impose the liturgy on them. Although this attempt failed (the Scots and the English went to war in 1639), the text of Laud's 1637 Scottish Prayer book survived because the text became cherished by the people. The title page of the 1637 Scottish book is shown in the figure below, lower left. The Scottish prayer book has the same kind of atonement character as the 1549 prayer book.

If you wish, you may click here to obtain a printable pdf file of the principle features and histories of the Scottish and American prayer books.

The Wee Bookies

In 1722, the first of a number of little booklets was published. These collectively later became known as the "Wee Bookies." These were printed for the non-juring Anglicans who left England after William and Mary were crowned. The 1722 Wee Bookie was a reproduction of the 1637 Scottish prayer book, but it had elements if the eucharistic prayer from the 1549 prayer book that had been eliminated from the 1552 and later editions of the English prayer book. In later printings (1735, 1744, 1755, 1764), other changes were made. It is important to note that the Wee Bookies together with the 1637 were the foundation of the first American Prayer book.

The American Prayer Book

The first interstate convention met to discuss the prayer book in New York on October 6-7, 1784, and a second convention meeting in Philadelphia on September 27-October 7, 1785 made recommendations for major changes in the prayer book. This committee appointed a committee to publish the Proposed Book. The work was issued in April, 1786 and received after three years of trial use.

At the first general convention that met in Philadelphia in 1789, the Proposed Book was revised again. Some of the changes reverted back to the 1662 English Prayer Book, and material was inserted from other sources. On October 16, 1789 the new revision was ratified by Convention for use throughout the Episcopal Church. This book was to be used from and after October 1, 1790. The title page to the 1789 book is shown in the figure below, lower right.

The 1789 Prayer Book has undergone three additional revisions, one in 1892, one in 1928, and the most recent one in 1979. The 1979 book is the form currently in use. It should be noted that there is an authorized supplement to the prayer book called, Enriching Our Worship as well.

If you wish, you may click here to obtain a printable pdf file of the principle features and histories of the Scottish and American prayer books.

The Psalter

The Psalter used in the Episcopal Book of Common prayer can be traced back to the reign of Henry VIII. Miles Coverdale produced an English translation of the in 1535 (ten years after Tyndale printed an English copy of the New Testament which earned him death at the stake in 1536). It is his translation of the Psalms that is contained in the present prayer book.

Prayer Books On Line

A terrific on line resource for the study of the prayer books is http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bcp/. The texts of the PECUSA Prayer Books of 1979, 1928, 1892, 1789, and 1786 are there, as well as the Church of England 1662 Book of Common Prayer and older versions.

 

Title page to the 1637 Scottish Prayer Book	Title Page to the 1789 United States Prayer Book

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Bibliography

Henry Bettenson. Documents of the Christian Church, Second Edition. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1963.

Owen Chadwick. The Reformation. London, England: Penguin Books. 1990.

William Crockett. Eucharist: Symbol of Transformation. New York, NY: Pueblo Publishing Company, 1989.

Justo L. Gonzales. The History of Christianity, Vol 2: The Reformation to the Present Day. New York, NY: HarperSanFrancisco. 1984.

John McManners (ed). The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. 1990.

J.R.H. Moorman. The History of the Church in England, Third Ed. Harrisburg, PA: Moorehouse Publishing, 1980.

 

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