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CLASS 4:

Review and Introduction

In the last class, we looked at the development of the creeds and some of the heresies that challenged the church to define orthodox Christianity. We looked at some of the major theologians who helped define Christianity by doing battle with groups of Christians who denied the humanity or the divinity of Jesus. We also looked at the circumstances of the fall of Rome and the rise of the Christian Empire under Constantine and his successors. We touched on the development of the papacy in the western church in response to the power vacuum created by the fall of Rome, and the subsequent emergence of the Holy Roman Empire. Finally, we talked about the schism between the Eastern and Western Churches over the nature of the trinity and the use of the filioque by the Western churches. This took us up to the year 1054 C.E.

What we will do in this class is move quickly through the middle ages to get to the abuses of the Roman Catholic church that many reformers wished to address. The reformation took different shapes in Europe and England, and we will look in depth at the reformation in Europe. This will set the stage for our discussion in Class 5 for the reformation in England and the development of our distinctive strand of Protestantism.

As in the previous classes, the material presented here draws heavily on the published histories and works of several authors. Check out the Bibliography.

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Europe in 1050

The Middle Ages in Europe

By about 1050 (the time of the schism between the Eastern and Western churches), most of Western Europe was Christian (see the map to the right). The rise of Islam in the seventh century C.E., had laid claim to many of the ancient Roman provinces, including North Africa, Spain, Sicily, and Western Asia, including Jerusalem (note the lower-left to upper-right hatched areas in the map). Collin Morris writes about this period that the majority of people in Western Europe were "baptized in childhood, and knew no alternative pattern of worship. The religion into which they were thus admitted was cultic in character: that is, it valued above all the power of the church to win the blessing of God by its prayers. The ordinary affairs of men could only be upheld by the intervention of God." (McManners, 194) (all works cited in these notes are referenced in the bibliography).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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An Age of Growth (1050 - 1300 C.E.)

The medieval church was in many respects a state. Southern describes it this way: "It had all the apparatus of the state: laws and law courts, taxes and tax collectors, a great administrative machine, power of life and death over the citizens of Christendom and their enemies within and without" (Southern, 18). Although the power over people available to the church was considerable, Southern believes that the church was restrained from wide-scale abuse out of fear that misuse of church authority would be rewarded by an eternity of punishment hereafter (Southern 19). However, there were indeed several instances of violence and cruelty, particularly during the period of the crusades.

The First Crusade

The Crusades

Between 1095 and 1270 Western Europe conducted eight crusades against the Arab invaders who had captured Jerusalem, the Holy Land, and many other territories around the Mediterranean. The First Crusade was preached by Pope Urban II who wrote, "I say it to those who are present. I command that it be said to those who are absent. Christ commands it. All who go thither and lose their lives, be it on the road or sea, or in the fight against the pagans, will be granted immediate forgiveness of their sins. This I grant to all who will march, by virtue of the great gift which God has given to me" (Gonzazles 1984a, 292). The first crusade proceeded from Europe over land and sea toward Jerusalem (see map to the right). Formally led by Bishop Adhemar of Puy, the crusaders laid siege to Antioch, Nicea, and other cities of Asia before capturing Jerusalem on July 15, 1099. Of the abuses, Gonzales writes,

There followed a terrible bloodbath. All the defenders were killed, as well as many civilians. Women were raped, and infants thrown against walls. Many of the city's Jews had taken refuge in the synagogue, and the crusaders set fire to the building with them inside. According to an eyewitness, at the Porch of Solomon, horses waded in blood. (Gonzazles, 1984a, 296).

Jerusalem did not remain in Christian hands for long. As Arab forces occupied Jerusalem and continued to press against Christian cities, Popes Gregory VIII and Innocent III called for renewal of the crusading spirit. During the fourth crusade, Constantinople was invaded by knights, who appointed a Latin patriarch of the Byzantine capital. This embittered the Bishops of the East against the Western churches. The final two crusades were led by Louis IX of France (who died of fever), and both were disasters.

Although not formally called a crusade, Christian forces recaptured Arab-held Spain during the 11th Century C.E. struggle known as the Reconquista (re-conquest). In 1002 the last of the great Arab caliphs of Cordova died, which fractured the Moorish (Arab) held lands lands in Spain. The Frankish held empire together with some Spanish Christian areas in Northern Spain took advantage of this and moved against the Moslems between 1085 and 1248. In 1248 the last Moorish state at Granada was defeated.

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The Ascent of the Papacy

One of the effects of the crusades and the Reconquista was that they increased the power of the papacy. When Urban II called for the first crusade, he was not universally heard - particularly in the Germanys. But, by the time of Innocent III, when the fourth crusade took Constantinople, the papacy was at the zenith of its power.

The Donation of Constantine

The supremacy of the papacy began in 315 with a forged document known as the Donation of Constantine. It is supposed to be a letter dated 315 C.E. from Constantine to Pope Sylvester I, willing the City of Constantine (Constantinople) to the Bishop of Rome (the pope). It was likely written about 750 C.E. The letter records Constantine's gifts to the Vicar of St. Peter (Sylvester I) in thanksgiving for the Pope's intervention and cure from leprosy. Sylvester was granted preeminence over the patriarchal sees of Antioch, Alexandra, Jerusalem and COnstantinople. All imperial power in the west is also transferred to the Pope, as well as significant land and property holdings.

Although a forgery, the document indicates that by the 8th Century C.E., the Pope was regarded as the universal and sovereign bishop; the vicar through whom St. Peter displayed his power.

The Vicar of St. Peter

In reality, St. Peter became Bishop of Antioch, and in 40, C.E., he moved his see to Rome. In 57, C.E. he instituted the feasts of Advent and Lent, and in 59 he consecrated Linus and Cletus his successors. As Southern put it, "There were no awkward gaps [in the papacy]. from the beginning, St. Peter and his successors could be seen at work directing the church, founding bishoprics. This scheme of things had the same unambiguous clarity as the generations of mankind from Adam" (Southern, 94).

Finally, there was also the presence of Peter's body in Rome. The tomb of St. Peter was the most significant fact that guaranteed an understanding of apostolic succession. Peter's continued physical presence guaranteed the link between the church on earth and God's kingdom in heaven. Obedience to St. Peter meant obedience to God, and disobedience to the Pope meant disobedience to St. Peter. When the archbishop of Ravenna was blinded for leading a rebellion, his punishment was pronounced by St. Peter for disobedience to his vicar.

Papal Growth, Decline, and Reform

It is important to note that prior to Gregory VII, the papacy had committed their future to the Carolingians (Charlemagne being crowned the first HR Emperor). However, the Carolingian empire did not last long, for although the Pope seemed to exert great power (having crowned Charlemagne), the governance of Rome itself was a shambles. In time the papacy fell into decline, and by the end of the tenth century under Pope Sergius III, the papacy went into serious decline. Sergius had two of his rivals killed, and subsequent popes were strangled, poisoned, imprisoned and starved. In other words the papacy fell into the hand of one incompetent after another. The office of pope was obtained by simony (purchase of the office), bribery, or murder.

Eventually, the papacy needed reformation, and that process began under Gregory VI. Subsequent popes continued the reformation. Two of these popes stand out. Leo IX (Pope from 1049 to 1054) and especially Gregory VII (Pope from 1073-1085) not only reformed the papacy, they expanded papal power.

Leo IX was an administrator, and surrounded himself with capable men. He forged a political alliance with the Normans, reformed the administration and refined a scheme of government using legates who had ecclesiastical authority over bishops even if they held inferior rank. His successor, Nicholas II reformed the way popes were elected by the college of cardinals (ca. 1000).

The next great reforming pope was Gregory VII (who wa the monk Hildebrand before his consecration as Bp. of Rome). He defined papal authority as being over kings and emperors because it came from no human being, but from God alone. He wrote in his letters that the pope can be judged by no one; that the church was founded by Christ alone; the Church has never erred; only the pope can translate (name) Bishops; only the pope can call councils, authorize canon law, use the official seal. He also declared that only the pope can depose emperors. Gregory VII was also the pope who ended marriage in the clerical ranks (prior to this time priests could marry).

The Ecumenical Councils
from 680-1312

Constantinople	680
Nicaea	787
Constantinople	869
Lateran	1123
Lateran	1139
Lateran	1179
Lateran	1215
Lyons	1245
Lyons	1274
Vienne	1311-12

The Vicar of Christ

After Gregory VII, the papacy took a different path. Papal emphasis on the link to St. Peter was replaced with a link to Christ himself. Under Pope Innocent III, the Pope became the Vicar of Christ. He wrote, "Just as God established two great luminaries in the heavens, the greater to preside over days, and the lesser to preside over nights, so did he establish two luminaries in the heavens of the universal church ... The greater to preside over souls as over days, and the lesser to preside over bodies as over nights. These are pontifical authority and royal power" (Gonzales, 1984a).

Ecumenical councils of the church became the tools of government, and the city and date of the councils during the medieval period were as shown in the table at the right. The constructive period of the papacy is understood by most scholars to be the period between 1123 and 1312.

Combating Heresy

The crusading spirit was also used to combat heresy. In the 13th Century, C.E., the papacy made war against the Albigensians in Southern France and Northern Italy who had adopted a form of Manicheism imported from Bulgaria. Many atrocities were conducted by both sides during these conflicts. This was also the time that the inquisition was granted extraordinary power.

 

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Monasticism in the Middle Ages

The development of the papacy and the relative stability it brought, increased prosperity of the cities. Trade increased, and the monetary economy improved. Not all welcomed this, because the gap between the rich and the poor grew. Monasticism, which had been growing steadily throughout the middle ages, took on a new form as the mendicant orders - that is the begging orders - began to flourish.

The first Mendicants were the followers of Valdes, also known as Peter Waldo (died ca. 1218). He was a wealthy Frenchman from Lyons who heard about a pious monk who himself had taken up a life of poverty. He and his followers did the same, and appealed to Rome to become established as an official order licensed to preach. This was denied. These people, later called the Waldensians, continued to preach, and were excommunicated in 1182. They fled and lived in the remote areas of the Alps until they are approached by Protestant theologians who accepted them.

The Franciscans

The most famous Mendicant was Francis of Assisi (1181-1226). He was the son of a prosperous merchant who had a profound religious experience that led him to deny his father's wealth, and to begin a life of poverty and preaching. early on he lived as a hermit but then returned to Assisi and preached about a life of voluntary poverty. Eventually Innocent III granted that the group could establish a new monastic order, and the order of St. Francis was begun. Francis forbade anyone from owning anything. Like Benedict, the sixth century founder of the Benedictine monastic order (discussed in Class 3), Francis established a Rule for living. A sister order for women founded by St. Claire was subsequently founded.

Curiously, for an order that was founded by someone who adamantly refused ownership of anything, the Franciscans eventually became the holders of vast tracts of land in Europe. In 1245 they began land acquisitions. Although the Holy See held the property for the exclusive use of the Franciscans, eventually the order itself held ownership.

The Dominicans

St. Dominic was 12 years older than Francis, but founded his order later in life. He was born to an aristocratic family in Calruega, in Castile, Spain. He studied theology and became canon of the cathedral in Osma. The cathedral began to follow the Rule of St. Augustine, which was an order whose rule allowed members to live without withdrawing from the world, and without setting aside their ministry to the faithful. In 1203, during a visit to Southern France, he became impressed by the Albigensians and the forceful efforts to convert them to catholicism (see "The Ascent of the Papacy" above). What disturbed Dominic was the treatment of the Abigensians; he felt a better way of dealing with heresy was the preaching an teaching of orthodoxy. Thus, education and study became important. When he attempted to found his own monastic order, Innocent III refused. So, Dominic initially adopted the Canons of St. Augustine.

Eventually the order became known as the Order of Preachers, and they emphasized study.They established a foothold in universities which were being established during the middle of the 13 century C.E.. Two of their strongholds were Paris and Oxford. One of the most celebrated students of the Dominican school was Thomas Aquinas.

The Augustinians

Prior to 1256, the Augustinians were three separate groups of monks who followed the Rule of Life St. Augustine developed (see "Augustine of Hippo" in Class 3). In 1256, Pope Alexander IV united these three groups to form the Friars Hermit from whom the present day order descends. Although initially living in remote places, the order soon began living in towns throughout Western Europe. The order that was in Saxony between 1419 and 1560 is the order to which Martin Luther belonged.

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Medieval Scholasticism and Thomas Aquinas

A drawing of a medieval monastery.

It was during the constructive period that perhaps the greatest mind of the medieval church emerged, Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). The 13th century was the zenith of Papal power and authority. The mendicant orders grew in numbers during this century. This was also the high point of medieval scholasticism. This was the name given to the kind of theological thinking and writing that developed within the schools of the period. It began in monasteries (see the picture to the right), but by the 12th C. theological learning had moved to the universities (see also the information above on the Dominicans).

The fist scholastic theologian of note is Anselm of Canterbury (although he spent most of his time in exile from Canterbury!). His method of doing theology was to apply reason to a truth known by faith in order to understand it better. He is best known for his ontological argument for the existence of God. Other scholastic scholars of note are Abelard, and Lombard.

The scholastic approach utilized a particular form of logical reasoning that involved the presentation of a premise followed by a series of reasons for answering the question (or addressing the premise) one way or the other. Finally, a conclusion was reached by arguing the positions presented.

The scholastic approach was fueled in large measure by the rediscovery in Western Europe of classical Greek thinking. This was made possible by the crusades that brought back greater knowledge of Aristotelian thinking which was different from and expanded upon the platonic or neoplatinic logic that the West had heretofore been familiar with. There was keen interest in this "new philosophy" especially in Paris where one student in particular stands out: Thomas Aquinas.

Thomas was an unlikely scholar; his classmates called him "the dumb ox" because of his size and quiet disposition. Thomas studied elsewhere in Europe, but eventually returned to Paris where he held one of the Dominican chairs of theology until 1272. Thomas believed that there were many truths that could be reached by the use of reason, but that there were also truths that were beyond it. Gonzales sums up Thomistic scholasticism as follows:

According to [Thomas] some truths are within the reach off reason, and others are beyond it. Philosophy deals only with the first; but theology is not limited to the latter. The reason for this is that there are truths that reason can prove, but which are necessary for salvation. Since God does not limit salvation to those who are intellectually gifted, all truths necessary for salvation, including that which can be reached by reason, has been revealed. Thus, such truths are a proper field of inquiry for both philosophy and theology. (Gonzales 1984a, 318)

Thomas' way of doing theology met with a struggle in scholastic circles, but in the end Thomistic thinking came to dominate the church from the 13 Century forward. A good review of Aquinas' theological views can be found in Gonzales, 1987. For a concise review of his life and works, the reader is referred to the monograph in the Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. See the bibliography.

Painting of Thomas Aquinas as a young man.	St. Thomas Aquinas

Thomas' influence can be felt in many areas of the church. He wrote, for example, that baptism and eucharist are the two principal sacraments (McKim, 118). The sacraments for Thomas are not just symbols, but things that can actually effect what they signify. They are literally the conveyors of God's grace. He believed that all sacraments had material and form (this is classical Aristotle). The material is the physical (like bread, wine, water). The form is what shapes the material, such as the words of consecration during the eucharist. For Thomas, when the right material and the right form are combined, the sign conveys the reality (the object becomes the sacrament). This is a very important point because the church will use Thomistic reasoning to develop the doctrine of transubstantiation (the transmutation of the bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ). Transubstantiation will become a major issue during the reformation period. In addition, the reformers - notably Luther - will take exception to the Thomistic formulation of "sacrament."

On December 6, 1263, six months after moving from Paris to Italy while saying mass, he underwent a mysterious traumatic experience, and stopped writing and teaching all together. Of his experience he reported, "everything I have written seems like straw by comparison with what I have seen and what has been revealed to me." In February of the next year he suffered a head injury and died on 7 March 1274 at the Abby of Fossanuova.

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Division in the Western Church: The Great Schism

Beginning with Pope Clement V (died 1314), the popes resided in Avignon, France (on the border of Italy and France). For seventy years the popes would be seated in that city instead of Rome. This was the period of the "Avignon Papacy" or the "Babylonian Captivity of the Church." This was also the time of the Hundred Years War, and the papacy became enmeshed with the forces of England and France.

After Clement V died, the cardinals were unable to select a successor. They chose a 72 year-old man who they figured would buy them time to decide whom to elect. This pope, John XXII, lived much longer than expected. To keep the palace in Avignon functioning he levied high ecclesiastical taxes that further alienated France from Italy. The next pope, Benedict XII promised that he would return to Rome, but instead, he ordered a larger palace constructed in Avignon. He also put the services of the papacy at the disposal of the French crown. This alienated the Holy Roman Empire from England. Eventually, and with the considerable help of St. Catherine (a Dominican nun), pope Gregory XI returned the papacy to Rome.

However, when Gregory died, the majority of cardinals were French, and the Italians feared the college of cardinals would elect a French pope and move the papacy to Avignon once more. A mob literally ensured that an Italian was made pope. This pope Urban VI was incompetent and a political fool. A group of cardinals opposed to Urban VI, declared his election was invalid, and elected a second pope, who took the name Clement VII and moved to Avignon. Now there were two popes, and they made war against each other. England backed the Roman pope, Scotland backed the Avignon pope. This situation persisted for many years; in 1394 the theologians at the University of Paris (where Aquinas had taught) proposed a solution, and several kings in Europe tried to convince the pope they backed to negotiate with the other. But negotiation was out of the question.

Eventually the cardinals called for a council to meet in Pisa in 1409. The council met, but the two popes withdrew to their own fortified strongholds. They deposed both popes and elected Alexander V to be the new pope. But the two popes refused to accept their depositions, and so there were now three popes. In terms of the line of succession, the current Roman church considers the popes who resided in Rome legitimate and the Avignon popes and Alexander as "anti-popes."

A second council was convened in 1414, and elected Martin V as the new legitimate pope. The Avignon pope living at the time ignored this new pope, but the rest of the world ignored him as well. When he died, no successor was named, and the papacy was restored.

Most importantly, the convening of the councils modeled a new approach to church leadership, namely the Counciliar Movement. The Council of the church began to take on more and more power. When the Eastern Church, which had been doing battle with the Turks, requested military aid from the Western church in exchange for reunification with the West, Pope Eugene IV jumped at the opportunity to reunite Christendom. But the Council was divided, and there were now two councils and one pope. Eventually, the controversy grew, and there were two popes and two councils. Eventually, in 1449, the rival pope gave up his claim to the throne of Peter and the Roman papacy was restored once more. The councils would forever be subject to the pope.

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A Map of Europe at the Time of the Reformation

The Reformation in Europe

A map of Europe at the time of the reformation is shown to the right. The Holy Roman Empire extended northward from the Papal states toward the Baltic, adjacent to the nation of France.

The root causes of the reformation are complex. A renaissance of pre-Christian art and the development of humanism (the earthly life) began to challenge the Western church. Second, the centuries of wrangling with the papacy had severely weakened the authority of the papacy. The invention of the printing press in the 15th C also made it possible to mass produce the Bible, so that all people could read it. In time there were calls for major church reform. John Wycliffe in Oxford, England, and Jan Hus in Prague were among the early voices that called for church reform.

The papacy demanded greater obedience from laity and clergy, and promoted a fear of punishment after death. The sacrament of penance became a tool by which the hierarchy could rule. Life became ruled by "if-then" propositions: "If I do this for God and Church, then I will endure less punishment now and in eternity." the church, which had previously tolerated the doctrine of purgatory, now actively encouraged it. It was into this world that Martin Luther was born on November 10, 1483.

Martin Luther

While in law school, he had a calling, and joined the order of the Augustinian Hermits (see the Augustinians, above). Luther went through an identity crisis while in seminary, and began wrestling with serious questions about the nature of God (Was God so wrathful that nothing he could do would win God's favor? Did a gracious God exist?). On the brink of a breakdown, his mentor in seminary finally told him that he would go to university and become a doctor of holy scripture.

Luther discovered a new source of faith: himself. He discovered that one becomes reconciled with God through faith rather than through personal or moral efforts. In other words, good works are not the key to salvation. This insight was in direct opposition, however, to one of the principal teachings of the church at the time.

The sale of indulgences and holy relics

Ever since the crusades, the church had promised the forgiveness of sins in the form of indulgences for those who fought. The practice of giving indulgences had increased over the years, and it was a money making enterprise for the church. preemptory indulgences were purchased for sins not yet committed, and for the payment of large sums, indulgences were granted that promised the release of relatives from purgatory. One particularly good "salesman of indulgences" Fr. Johann Tetzel, promised his customers, "As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul out of purgatory springs." The monies collected from Luther's community was added to monies collected from provinces all over Europe and funneled to Rome to pay for the construction of St. Peter's Basilica. A woodcut of Jan Breu The Elder (ca 1530) shown to the right illustrates trafficking in indulgences.

 

 

[At this point in the presentation, we will watch a 6 minute scene of the purchase of indulgences from the recent film Luther. MGM Studios, 2003 (Scene 3 on the DVD).]

 

Martin Luther and Katherine von Bora

Luther was troubled by what he viewed as theologically unsound and uncharitable practices of the church - including indulgences. He called for a debate by the church by posting 95 thesis on the door of Wittenberg Castle Church on October 31, 1517. Luther became recognized by laity, nobility, and other

members of the church to be a defender of the ancient Christian teachings. Luther wrote many treatises, and it is impossible to summarize them all (he wrote more than 450 treatises, more than 3000 sermons, 2600 letters, and 7000 table talks - recorded informal discussions of Luther with his students and colleagues). The interested reader is referred to the very good and concise review of Luther and the fundamentals of Lutheranism by Eric W. Gritsch entitled, Fortress Introduction to Lutheranism . A long, but relatively thorough collection of Luther's basic theological writings is the volume edited by Timothy Lull entitled, Martin Luther's Basic Theological Writings. See the bibliography.

 

Luther was excommunicated on January 3, 1521. But he was a favorite of the German prince, Frederick the Wise, and Frederick (see below) allowed him to continue to function as priest and professor. Luther married an apostate nun named Katherine von Bora (see below).

 

Frederick of Saxony

Frederick persuaded Holy Roman Emperor Charles V to meet with the Papal Legate and the German princes at the Diet of Worms in April 1521. Luther was asked to recant his written works that criticized the mother church. He was granted one day to prepare his defense. The next day he declared that he could not recant unless persuaded by reason and scripture. On May 26, 1521, the Diet condemned Luther (Luther was 42 at the time). His life in danger, he was spirited away from Worms to Wartburg Castle where he lived under the protection of Frederick.

 

 

[Here we will watch the 5 minute 45 second scene from Luther when Luther appears before Charles V and the Diet on the second day of his appearance before Charles and the papal legate (Scene 13 on the DVD)]

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A drawing of Emperor Charles V hearing the Augsburg Confession. On the right side, blood flows from Christ's side into the chalice, and the people receive communion in both kinds.

Five years after Luther's condemnation, another Diet was convened at Augsburg, and Seven Lutheran territorial princes and two cities submitted a confession of Faith. This became known as the Augsburg Confession. Charles V appointed a group of theologians headed by a Papal representative to review the document, and although they accepted 28 of the articles, they refused to accept others. The break between Luther's Protesters and the Roman Catholic Church had been achieved.

The Lutheran movement began a course of reformation that would continue in various forms all over Europe. Some reformers would call for more radical reform, such as Thomas Muntzer and Ulrich Zwingli. The Anabaptists came from Zwingli's group of reformers, and were named "anabaptists" because they specifically rejected the notion of infant baptism. Under the leadership of Menno Simons, the anabaptists would become the Mennonites. John Calvin was another of the reformers.

One major issue for the reformers was the issue of the presence of Christ in the eucharist. Zwingili claimed that the eucharist was only a memorial of Christ's death. Calvin asserted that Christ was only present in a non-corporeal spiritual sense during communion, and that holy communion should be celebrated only on a few days of the year instead on every Sunday. Luther believed that these views were inspired by Satan, not by the Holy Spirit.

The work of Luther and the other reformers forever changed the religious landscape of the world. By 1546, Lutheranism was on its way to becoming a separate church from Rome, and later, other Protestant denominations began to appear in many places of the world. In 1555, the peace of Augsburg was signed between the Catholics and the Protestants using the formula "he who rules a region is in charge of its religion," a phrase used by Luther before his death in February 1546. The German territories were split into two official religious communities: Roman Catholic and the churches of the Augsburg Confession (Gritsch, 23). Note the map below.

The face of Protestantism in Europe showing the areas influenced by Luther, Zwingli, and Calvin (From McManners, 270)

The Counter-Reformation

The Council of Trent

The Roman Church formally refuted the tenets of Lutheranism at the Council of Trent. The Council was first convened by Pope Paul III, and then reconvened by Popes Julius III and Paul IV. The Council met for three periods between 1545 and 1563, due to strife, internal struggle, or outright rebellion that prevented the Council from remaining in session. A drawing of the Council during one of the periods is shown below.

This Council is credited with affirming many of the doctrines of the RC Church. One of the items affirmed was that tradition was a source of revelation. Luther claimed that truth came from scripture alone. But, by its language the Council of Trent opened the way for "theological extensions" of scripture, such as the immaculate conception of Mary. Other items affirmed were the theology of the sacraments, and that there were seven named sacraments and all were necessary to salvation.

The doctrines of transubstantiation during the Eucharist, penance, and extreme unction were defined, and the Protestant ideas about the Eucharist (Lutheran, Calvinist, and Zwinglian) were refuted. The presence of the undivided Christ under either species (bread or wine), and the adequacy of communion in one kind were affirmed. The authority of the Latin Vulgate Bible (translated by St. Jerome), was affirmed as well. The Council's actions were facilitated by the newest order, the "Society of Jesus" - the Jesuits who by the time of the third period of meeting, had begun to play a major role in church politics.

 

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Demoninational Growth

The Reformation led to the development of many Protestant denominations. The development of some of these is discussed above. The chart below shows the outgrowth of some of the major groups.

 

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Bibliography

Owen Chadwick. The Reformation. London, England: Penguin Books. 1990.

F.L. Cross and E.A. Livingstone (eds.). The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1997.

Justo L. Gonzales. The History of Christianity, Vol 1: The Early CHurch to the Dawn of the Reformation. New York, NY: HarperSanFrancisco. 1984a.

Justo L. Gonzales. The History of Christianity, Vol 2: The Reformation to the Present Day. New York, NY: HarperSanFrancisco. 1984b.

Justo L. Gonzales. A History of Christian Thought, Vol 2: From Augustine to the Eve of the Reformation. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. 1987.

Eric W. Gritsch. Fortress Introduction to Lutheranism. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1994.

Timothy Lull. Martin Luther's Basic Theological Writings. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1989.

Donald K. McKim. Theological Turning Points: Major Issues in Christian Thought. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1988.

John MMcanners (ed). The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. 1990.

R.W. Southern. The Middle Ages. London, England: Penguin Books. 1990.

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